p. 1

food control 21 2010 1­6 contents lists available at sciencedirect food control journal homepage www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont review designing effective messages for microbial food safety hazards casey jacob a lisa mathiasen b douglas powell a a b department of diagnostic medicine/pathobiology kansas state university manhattan ks 66506 usa department of plant agriculture university of guelph guelph on canada n1g 2w1 articleinfoabstract despite numerous food safety information campaigns and educational efforts microbial foodborne illness remains a significant source of human disease new food safety messages transmitted using new media are required to enhance food safety from farm-to-fork a review of the literature reveals that targeting a segment of the population and understanding knowledge attitudes and perceptions of the individuals comprising that segment can lead to successful communication of food safety messages messages found to be effective are relevant to the target audience contain reliable information are rapidly distributed at appropriate times and are repeated those containing information that is easily received and understood have also been found effective the use of media commonly accessed by today s consumers is also valuable evaluation of the effect of all aspects of food safety messages and media as measured through observation of recipients actions is required to validate the effectiveness of food safety communications Ó 2009 elsevier ltd all rights reserved article history received 19 january 2009 received in revised form 17 april 2009 accepted 26 april 2009 keywords risk communication food safety messages farm-to-fork continuum contents 1 2 introduction 1.1 risk communication in food safety understand the target audience 2.1 determine consumer knowledge and attitudes 2.2 consider sociocultural factors 2.3 recognize individual perceptions 2.4 identify appropriate media for distribution rapidly create a reliable message relevant to the audience and repeat it 3.1 challenge complacency 3.2 acknowledge perceptions of risk 3.3 enhance personal perception of risk 3.4 use narratives 3.5 associate with lifestyle of audience 3.6 use social marketing 3.7 reinforce food safety messages ensure clarity 4.1 use clear language 4.2 include graphics 4.3 maintain consistency test and evaluate messages conclusion references 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 6 corresponding author tel +1 785 317 0560 fax +1 785 532 4039 e-mail address dpowell@ksu.edu d powell 0956-7135 see front matter Ó 2009 elsevier ltd all rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2009.04.011

[close]

p. 2

2 c jacob et al food control 21 2010 1­6 1 introduction the majority of microbial foodborne illnesses are thought to be preventable if food safety principles are understood and practiced throughout the entire food chain from production to consumption a weak link anywhere from farm-to-fork can have devastating and far-reaching effects sewell farber 2001 the impact of a food safety hazard can be amplified by the nature of current food processing and distribution systems lammerding paoli 1997 woteki facinoli schor 2001 to reduce the incidence of foodborne illness interventions are necessary throughout the food safety continuum wong et al 2004 despite the efforts of food safety information campaigns and educational efforts food remains a prevalent vehicle of disease redmond griffith 2003 new food safety messages using new media may effectively modify dangerous human behaviors in the food safety system 1.1 risk communication in food safety communication about possible problems in the food supply is based in risk communication theory a science-based approach for providing information about the safety of food in situations of a perceived or real risk a fao/who expert consultation on the application of risk communication to food standards and safety matters 1999 stated that the goal of risk communication is to provide meaningful relevant and accurate information in clear and understandable terms targeted to a specific audience upon review of the risk communication messages considered most persuasive by frewer howard hedderley and shepherd 1997 statements providing direction were considered the most persuasive as well as statements to which individuals could personally relate the messages considered least persuasive included those containing information not directly related to the individual statements with unfamiliar words such as campylobacter and statements that contained unnecessary dates e.g the link between food poisoning and bacteria came in 1888 methods of evaluation to measure behavior change resulting from food safety messaging must also be identified and incorporated into a successful communications strategy mccomas 2002 2 understand the target audience effective health communication programs identify and prioritize audience segments freimuth linnman potter 2000 andreason 1995 suggests that understanding specific target audiences needs and perceptions are necessary to build an effective communication campaign with the goal of changing behavior any message developed with regard to a specific audience must be tailored to the audience s needs concerns and interests lundgren 1994 for example mcgregor 2001 has indicated that the values of canadians are not identical to those of americans and it is therefore not appropriate to substitute an american food safety educational program like fight bac!tm in canada without first testing the effectiveness of the program successful communication results from investing time and effort to understand what people know and believe and what they expect from the communications process jardine 2003 the individuals and groups that make up the audience and designing effective risk communication messages several strategies for effective communication were also identified by the consultation these included determining the public s perception of a hazard determining the knowledge and behavior of the public regarding the risks involved and understanding the public s motivations to act on the hazard covello 2003 suggests finding out what people know think or want done about risks using techniques such as interviews discussion groups information exchanges toll free numbers and surveys efforts to communicate are wasted if people already know the information or if the information is deemed irrelevant fischhoff downs 1997 2.2 consider sociocultural factors authors of a uk study reported that the willingness to change behavior is determined by perceptions and beliefs and acknowledged the need to learn more about consumer attitudes and behaviors wilcock pun khanona aung 2004 food choices and risk perceptions around food are motivated by culturally relevant ethical concerns knox 2000 food issues are highly personal and involve health and nutrition economics and security and represent deeply held values probart 2002 cultural and social factors that could hamper risk communication need to be addressed as part of the process of designing messages for target audiences fao 1999 hudson and hartwell 2002 conducted a study on the food safety awareness of older people in their homes in the uk using focus groups and semi-structured interviews a feeling of complacency existed among respondents as age and experience were interpreted as reflecting knowledge another study in the uk shaw 2004 which discussed the beef-on-the-bone ban implemented by the british government during the bovine spongiform encephalopathy bse crisis revealed that consumers preferred a policy that provided information about known risk however partial and allowed consumer freedom of choice 2.3 recognize individual perceptions one key to effective message development is the recognition that individuals are unique and that each person will respond to a message using his or her own filters of knowledge and experience lundgren 1994 for example fein lin and levy 1995 determined that if a person thinks they have recently experienced foodborne illness they are likely to increase their food safety awareness concern and knowledge mazzacchi lobb traill and cavicchi 2008 found in a study of european consumers that trust in food safety information could not be linked to socio-demographic characteristics and it was therefore not possible to target specific socio-economic groups with food safety messages the authors suggested that to be effective messages should target audiences based on psychological characteristics results of an australian study on predictors of consumers food and health concerns similarly indicated that consumers opinions about food issues are more likely to be adequately explained and predicted if psychographic variables are considered as opposed to demographic variables the psychographic variables studied included personality traits personal values and shopping styles worsley skrzypiec 1998 food safety messages need to be personalized enough to provide a framework for individual action while recognizing the practical constraints of tailoring a message to each member of a target audience powell et al 2002 2.4 identify appropriate media for distribution mcdermott et al 2003 suggest communicators define the target audience to suggest appropriate channels for dissemination 2.1 determine consumer knowledge and attitudes a third joint fao/who consultation was held on the application of risk communication to food standards and safety matters in february 1998 the consultation identified several principles for effective risk communication including knowing the audience understanding the motivation opinions concerns and feelings of

[close]

p. 3

c jacob et al food control 21 2010 1­6 3 of outreach materials the world health organization 2002 asserts that specific needs of a target audience are met by determining which media are best for delivering messages to that audience the level of trust that an individual has in the source of information affects the acceptance of the message regarding food safety audiences should be reached though familiar channels freimuth et al 2000 a study by buzby and ready 1996 indicated that 40 of the respondents did not trust the accuracy of food safety information in any form including government publications and food labeling people relied on cookbooks more than on government sources for food safety information buzby ready 1996 a decade later survey respondents were found to obtain information on food safety primarily from newspapers and tv/radio word-of-mouth magazines and labels were also used as sources of information ralston brent starke riggins lin 2002 consumers at that time attributed safer handling of meat and poultry to media coverage of food safety practices while revealing that consumers do not actively seek food safety information but do pay notice to recommendations provided by the media particularly television usda fsis 2000 in a separate study television radio and print media were found to be the most effective ways of providing food safety information to a north american audience usda fsis 2002a studies also suggest that information be disseminated through books magazines cooking shows and web sites usda fsis 2000 2001 internet distribution of food safety information for consumers is increasing in the uk redmond griffith 2006 and reflects a growing interest in the use of the internet as a tool for communication of health-related information korp 2006 the use of the internet as a source of food safety information has not been well studied but a 2002 survey n 1006 by the american dietetic association and conagra foods found that an increasing number of americans 26.6 of those surveyed were visiting the internet for information on food safety topics cody hogue 2003 an agriculture and agri-food canada survey in 2006 n 1600 also found one in eight canadians to use the internet as a source of such information ipsos-reid corporation 2006 this trend is expected to continue powell surgeoner wilson chapman 2007 does not impact consumers willingness to change behavior mcintosh christensen acuff 1994 unklesbay sneed toma 1998 an effective food safety message goes beyond relaying information to influence a person s attitude and behavior durant 2002 at a time when constant repetition that the food supply is very safe is widespread costa 2001 concludes that individuals must be convinced of the food safety threat in order to use safe food preparation methods effective food safety messaging must challenge complacency and food handlers false perceptions of assurance levy 2002 redmond and griffith 2004 reported that recognition of personal responsibility for food safety is a prerequisite for implementation of proper food safety behaviors people with an it will not happen to me attitude may ignore risk communications assuming that these messages are targeted at a more vulnerable population miles et al 1999 sparks shepherd 1994 it is thus important to address perceptions of food safety risk and the notions of optimistic-bias and the illusion of control redmond griffith 2004 3.2 acknowledge perceptions of risk the public s view of risk accounts for context cultural factors and local conditions individuals prefer information that can be used to determine the personal relevance of a potential risk confronting them regardless of the steps taken by others ensure a safe food supply the choice to pursue food safety ultimately resides with individual perceptions knight warland 2004 in a study by shaw 2004 to understand food risks related to microbiological safety and bovine spongiform encephalopathy in the uk personal risk management strategies reflected the importance of risk as a factor influencing food choice preparation and consumption some people were indifferent to food safety risks and felt that other factors were more important in food preparation such as tradition habit and enjoyment of certain practices such as licking a bowl of uncooked cake mix which may contain salmonella from raw eggs used in the mix many felt their practices had caused them no harm taste preferences proved more important than motivation to avoid foodborne illness in a study of reported hamburger preparation habits rare or medium-rare versus more well-done choices ralston et al 2002 3.3 enhance personal perception of risk perception of risk plays a significant role in personal decisions and behaviors gordon 2003 educators should strive to raise awareness of personal risk associated with foodborne illness fraser 2002 to make risk messages interesting and relevant to target audiences a third joint fao/who consultation was held on the application of risk communication to food standards and safety matters in february 1998 suggested emphasizing the human rather than the statistical aspects of a story this can be accomplished by reporting how many people have become ill covello sandman slovic 1991 shaw 2004 usda fsis 2001 identifying individual victims further enhances public perception of personal risk covello peters wojtecki hyde 2001 consumer-based focus groups have suggested that effective messages include words that affect a person at an emotional level usda fsis 2001 additionally female audiences may become engaged through concern for their young children shaw 2004 through an assessment of informing expectant mothers of the risk from listeria monocytogenes it was suggested that words like `miscarriage and `stillbirth be used usda fsis 2001 risk perception may also be influenced by the perceived severity of the consequences of food risks shaw 2004 a message is also more likely to be received correctly and effectively if viewed by the receiver as a surprise shannon 1948 3 rapidly create a reliable message relevant to the audience and repeat it research on health and related behaviors has suggested that individuals make rational decisions about such behaviors when they are aware of and have some knowledge about the risks associated with particular actions redmond griffith 2003 levy 2002 communication of risks involving food may be best received at teachable moments following outbreaks of foodborne illness miles braxton frewer 1999 timeliness is imperative in effective risk communication to overcome entrenched perceptions that are broadly dispersed in the social environment powell 2000 powell et al 2007 messages based on current and emerging issues must be developed and shared in a timely fashion accompanied by timeless basic food safety information such as the importance of hand washing woteki et al 2001 accurate evidence-based information from credible sources is the cornerstone of effective health communication programs conley 1998 freimuth et al 2000 3.1 challenge complacency despite rapid dissemination of reliable information awareness of specific pathogens and procedures to ensure levels of food safety

[close]

p. 4

4 c jacob et al food control 21 2010 1­6 3.4 use narratives messages based on stories and those that are meant to elicit fear about individual practices have more impact on the desire to use safe practices than presenting consequence-based statistics alone morgan cole struttmann piercy 2002 slater and rouner 1996 report that individuals who do not believe in the information prior to receiving a message perceive narratives to be more persuasive than statistics psychologist howard 1991 argues that narratives and storytelling are effective methods for conveying information because there is a better understanding of one s place in a system when an individual sees himself or herself as an actor within the context of a story stories reinforce facts and provide a context for using theoretical information lordley 2007 3.5 associate with lifestyle of audience leventhal singer and jones 1965 found surprising and fearful messages to be more convincing than bland informative messages but did not evoke a change in behavior unless provided alongside personal and practical advice that related to the audience s lives food safety educators need to incorporate everyday context into food safety communications wilcock et al 2004 for example a survey involving four focus groups regarding barriers for the use of food thermometers by consumers indicated that ordinary meals should be highlighted over special occasion meals baldwin group 2001 messages intended to promote safe food handling practices must also promote feelings of competency or self-efficacy to adopt proper practices gordon 2003 levy 2002 indicates that practice-specific information will likely be more effective than general information while covello 2003 says to identify specific actions that individuals can take to protect themselves anderson et al 2004 recommends that effective food safety educational programs should be based on valid reliable and evidence-based data relating to actual food handling and preparation behaviors anderson et al 2004 common food handling errors should be the focus of these messages over less frequent handling errors hillers medeiros kendall chen dimascola 2003 3.6 use social marketing in 2000 the us department of agriculture s food safety and inspection service usda fsis launched the thermy the thermometertm campaign to encourage consumers to use a food thermometer to ensure that meat is thoroughly cooked usda fsis 2008 the campaign is based on social marketing usda fsis 2008 which offers a consumer-based approach to promote a socially beneficial behavioral change in specific populations lefebvre flore 1988 the key feature of this approach is to understand consumers wants and needs and to manufacture products that enable consumers to better solve their problems social marketing works to change behavior by utilizing research to construct messages specifically for target audiences durant 2002 upon evaluation by the usda fsis after implementation effective messages used by the campaign were identified as use a thermometer to help keep your children healthy and safe using a food thermometer is the only sure way to know your food has reached a high enough temperature to destroy foodborne bacteria and use a thermometer to enhance food quality by targeting parents of children children are a high-risk age group and by using the themes of food quality as opposed to food safety and eating bacteria for dinner the thermytm messages have been persuasive usda fsis 2002b griffith and redmond 2006 have observed changes in the behaviors of food handlers after the use of multiple food safety interventions developed using a consumer-oriented social marketing approach however the authors suggest that interventions developed using this approach provide continuous interventions or interventions at staged intervals in order to expand and maintain changes griffith et al 2006 3.7 reinforce food safety messages to be effective food safety messages must be reinforced on a regular basis this can be accomplished by utilizing multiple strategies and channels to distribute the messages freimuth et al 2000 food safety information may be provided in written verbal or visual formats but will be most effective if used in combination with each other durant 2002 surveys indicate that consumers in particular use a diversity of sources for food safety information ralston starke brent riggins 2000 food safety messages reach consumers directly through brochures labels and advertising and indirectly though newspapers reporting on foodborne illness outbreaks and recalls magazine and cookbooks ralston et al 2000 doing risk communication early is of little benefit if it is not also done often powell 2000 4 ensure clarity according to michael sansolo from the food marketing institute who spoke at a 1997 us national conference devoted to developing food handling education programs messages must be consistent clear and direct important points should be highlighted throughout the material and easily retrieved to further ensure clarity food safety communications should be of reasonable length and depth past research has shown the provision of too much information to be a common problem foster käferstein 1985 food safety messages that are burdensome to receive or decipher are easily disregarded 4.1 use clear language information should be targeted to an audience s estimated level of comprehension to be most efficient covello 1995 best practice conventions include attention to reading skills and to key elements of the message such as vocabulary sentence construction format and other factors that may increase or limit access to written information rudd comings hyde 2003 use clear nontechnical language appropriate to the target audience covello 2003 studies show that many consumers appear to lack an understanding of basic food safety terms fda usda fsis 2000 redmond griffith 2003 one study found that up to 75 of consumers are unfamiliar with the term cross-contamination and the actions associated with cross-contamination fda usda fsis 2000 it has also been found that people are unfamiliar with the terms separate pathogens cook to proper temperatures danger zone two-hour rule and refrigerate promptly usda fsis 2000 a misunderstanding of key terms and concepts could nullify the impact of attempts to inform consumers fda usda fsis 2000 4.2 include graphics it is important that the audience is able to understand the message immediately and not question it s meaning lundgren 1994 use graphics and other pictorial material to clarify messages covello 2003 further visual models creating a strong association between a symbol and an action such as a thermometer and thoroughly cooked food should be used schiffman 1995 if possible avoid words by using only visual images to convey meaning lundgren 1994

[close]

p. 5

c jacob et al food control 21 2010 1­6 5 4.3 maintain consistency a further factor that encourages compliance is consistency of information covello allen 1988 in the thermytm campaign launched in 2000 final cooking temperatures recommended for consumers differed from recommended food service final cooking temperatures which may cause confusion pfse 2000 additionally claims by the thermytm campaign that using a thermometer was the only sure way of knowing that food is thoroughly cooked conflicted with claims by the fight bac!tm campaign also implemented in the us at that time that red meat is cooked when it is brown or gray chicken is cooked when the juices run clear and fish is cooked when it flakes with a fork durant 2000 pfse 2000 contradictory messages can cause confusion and create distrust in the information itself and also in the agencies disseminating such information covello 1988 the thermytm campaign was launched by the usda fsis in light of new evidence that color was not a reliable indicator of the doneness of ground beef usda fsis 2004 the fight bac!tm campaign by the partnership for food safety education failed to update its recommendations for years after this information became available pfse 2000 this suggests that frequent routine assessment of available information could reduce inconsistencies among food safety messages when multiple formats are used to distribute risk information it is vital that all messages are consistent powell et al 2002 5 test and evaluate messages a joint fao/who consultation on the application of risk communication to food standards and safety matters in february 1998 suggests adding an evaluation component to any risk communication strategy and testing the clarity and understanding of the messages with a representative segment of the target audience covello 2003 who published revised best practices for a public health risk and crisis communication plan based on earlier work in the field of risk communication suggests pre-testing prepared messages mcdermott et al 2003 encourage communicators to pretest developed materials with target audience in the context in which they will be distributed and revise based on the results following distribution evidence-based evaluations must be done to determine the effects of food safety programs on individuals food safety knowledge and behaviors briss et al 2000 it is important that these evaluations be conducted using direct observation as clear discrepancies have been identified between observational and self-reported data in studies of food-handling behaviors anderson et al 2004 clayton griffith price 2003 dedonder et al in press clayton et al 2003 suggest that intentions to perform safe food handling are not always manifested as some actions during meal preparation are not under volitional control in an observation of the cooking behaviors of adolescents dedonder et al in press noted that such absent-minded behaviors as brushing the hair from one s face contributed to increased instances cross-contamination direct observation can be used to capture an individual s actual behavior and place the behavior in context gittelsohn shankar west ram gnywali 1997 there is also a need to evaluate whether food safety educational programs are addressing the most salient food safety behaviors medeiros hillers kendall mason 2001 food safety communicators must also be aware that new pathogens will emerge and known pathogens will re-emerge in response to changes in food production and distribution methods microbial genetic adaptations changing population demographics changes in food preparation and consumption patterns and influences of global commerce this variation in pathogens of concern underlines the need for con tinual re-examination of the food safety guidance provided to consumers hillers et al 2003 6 conclusion each audience brings unique challenges to the development and transmission of food safety information the public consists of a wide range of vastly different lifestyle situations that must be considered if messages are to be effective individuals at high risk of disease and death by foodborne pathogens and their caretakers deserve heightened attention from food safety communicators within and in addition to communication with the general public the setting in which the information is received also an important consideration as the multiple food preparation environments from the farm to the fork each necessitate different delivery mechanisms and content to compel the target audience to practice microbiologically safe food handling the key message for any food safety communicator is that food safety is complex and it requires constant vigilance commitment and compelling communications references anderson j b gee e mendenhall v t shuster t a hansen k volk a 2004 a camera s view of consumer food handling and preparation practices journal of the american dietetic association 104 186­191 andreason a 1995 marketing social change san francisco jossey-bass baldwin group 2001 a project to apply theories of a social marketing to the challenge of food thermometer education in the united states

[close]

p. 6

6 c jacob et al food control 21 2010 1­6 morgan s e cole h p struttmann t piercy l 2002 stories or statistics farmers attitudes toward messages in an agricultural safety campaign journal of agricultural safety and health 8 225­239 partnership for food safety education pfse 2000 cook heat it up

[close]