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islam religion history and civilization seyyed hossein nasr

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for sina

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contents epigraph introduction 1 islam and the islamic world 2 islam as religion 3 doctrines and beliefs of islam 4 the dimensions of islam 5 islamic practices ethics and institutions 6 a brief journey through islamic history vi vii 1 25 59 75 91 115 7 schools of islamic thought and their history 153 8 islam in the contemporary world notes recommended reading index about the author cover copyright about the publisher 173 187 189 193

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in the name of god the infinitely good the all-merciful

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introduction islam is both a religion and a civilization a historical reality that spans over fourteen centuries of human history and a geographical presence in vast areas stretching over the asian and african continents and even parts of europe it is also a spiritual and metahistorical reality that has transformed the inner and outer life of numerous human beings in very different temporal and spatial circumstances today over 1.2 billion people from different racial and cultural backgrounds are muslim and historically islam has played a significant role in the development of certain aspects of other civilizations especially western civilization not only is islam a major presence in today s world but its influence is also evident in the history of the christian west not to mention that of india and other regions of asia and africa that is why knowledge of islam is so important for those concerned with the situation of contemporary humanity and those interested in western intellectual and cultural history as well as those attracted to the reality of religion and the world of the spirit as such vii

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viii introduction one would think therefore that the study of islam would be widespread in the west and especially in america which has a notable muslim minority and which is now able to project so much power globally including within the islamic world such however is not the case despite the rise of interest in islam since the tragic events of september 11 2001 moreover much that is presented today in the english language as the study of islam by so-called experts is strongly colored by various prejudices and ideological biases although there are exceptions in fact although islamic studies have been carried out in the west for over a thousand years in each period such studies have been distorted and tainted by a particular set of errors and deviations the study of islam in the west began in the tenth and eleventh centuries because this was a time in which europe was thoroughly christian islam was seen as a christian heresy and its founder as an apostate soon the imminent threat to western christendom from islam led many to call the prophet of islam the antichrist and the quran itself was translated by order of peter the venerable in order to be refuted and rejected as sacred scripture the middle ages were marked by strong religious opposition to islam yet it was at this time that the west showed the greatest interest in islamic thought including philosophy and the sciences and islamic education arts and technology were greatly respected the first translations into latin of works of islamic thought ranging from philosophy and even theology to astronomy mathematics and medicine belong to this

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introduction ix period formal islamic studies in the west may in fact be said to have begun during the middle ages the renaissance perpetuated religious opposition to islam but also began to show disdain not only for europe s own medieval past but also for islamic learning although there were some exceptions furthermore the emphasis on euro-centrism during the renaissance and the rise of humanism caused many european thinkers of that time to consider people of other civilizations and ethnic groups including muslims inferior although islamic studies were still carried on during the renaissance and in some places such as bologna even within the framework of the older medieval respect for islamic thought in many places they were distorted by a sense of western superiority and even hubris characteristics that were to continue into the modern period the enlightenment turned against the theological assertions of christianity and substituted rationalism for a worldview based on faith moreover it further developed the idea that there was only one civilization the western one and that other civilizations were significant only to the extent of their contribution to western civilization which the french encyclopedists referred to as the civilization la civilisation obviously in such a situation islam and its civilization could only play an inferior and secondary role although some new translations of islamic sources were made into european languages at this time and islamic studies remained an intellectual and academic discipline little was done to understand the teachings of islam on their own terms many of the leading thinkers

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x introduction of this period in fact maintained the older european disdain for islam but at the same time tried to make use of some of its teachings to attack christianity such a dual attitude toward islam is evident in the works of voltaire among others during the nineteenth century historicism in its absolutist sense took the center of the philosophical stage with hegel who considered all other civilizations stages in the march of the geist in time leading to the final stage which was supposedly realized in modern western history and yet this was also the period when the romantic movement began when many minds tired of the rationalism of the enlightenment turned anew to the middle ages as well as to seeking meaning beyond the borders of the west this was the period when many of the greatest spiritual masterpieces of islamic literature especially many of the sufi classics were translated into german english and french and seriously attracted major western writers and thinkers such as goethe rückert and emerson this was also the period when the exotic image of the islamic east with its mysterious casbahs and harams full of nude females developed as reflected in nineteenth-century european art associated with orientalism moreover this period marked the beginning of official oriental studies including islamic studies in various western universities often supported by colonial governments such as those of britain france the netherlands and russia oriental studies in fact developed as an instrument for furthering the policy of colonial powers whether they were carried out in central asia for use by the russian colonial office or in india

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introduction xi for the british government but there were among the orientalists in the late nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century also a number of noble scholars who studied islam both objectively and with sympathy such as thomas arnold sir hamilton gibb louis massignon and henry corbin later western orientalists who belong to this tradition include marshall hodgson annemarie schimmel and several other important scholars but the main product of the orientalist manner of studying islam remained heavily biased not only as a result of the interests of those powers it was serving but also through the absolutization of current western concepts and methodologies that were applied to islam with the sense of superiority and hubris going back to the renaissance definition of the european man the last half of the twentieth century witnessed a major transformation in islamic studies in the west at least in certain circles first of all a number of acutely intelligent and spiritually aware westerners who realized the spiritual poverty of modernism began to seek wisdom in other worlds some turned to the objective and unbiased study of the deepest teachings of islam which only confirmed for them the reality of the presence of a perennial sophia at the heart of all heavenly inspired religions this group which includes rené guénon frithjof schuon titus burckhardt martin lings gai eaton michel vâlsan william chittick michel chodkiewicz james morris vincent cornell and many other notable contemporary western writers on islam has produced a wholly new type of literature in the west as far as islam is concerned it has created a

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xii introduction body of writings rooted in the authentic teachings of islam yet formulated in the intellectual language of the west and based on the confirmation not the denial of the spiritual teachings on which traditional western civilization itself was founded furthermore during this same period authentic representatives of the islamic tradition those who were born and brought up in that tradition began to study western thought and languages and gradually to produce works in european languages on islam that were not simply apologetic as had been the earlier works in english of a number of indian muslim writers but explained clearly and without compromise the teachings of islam in a manner comprehensible to westerners needless to say during this period there also appeared a large number of completely modernized muslim writers who wrote about islam not from within the islamic worldview but from the point of view of the ever changing categories of modern and more recently postmodern western thought finally a younger generation of scholars have appeared on the scene during the past few years who are both muslim and western either they are muslims born in the west or westerners who have openly embraced islam have lived in the islamic world and know it well from within scholars belonging to this category are now beginning to occupy a number of academic positions in europe and america and to produce pertinent works of an authentic nature on various aspects of islamic studies despite the presence of such groups however the antiislamic approach to islamic studies continues in many circles.

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introduction xiii some academics continue to apply non-islamic and in fact purely secularist concepts drawn from various currents of western philosophy and social sciences to islam and then there are the political ideologues who often have little knowledge of islam yet are presented as experts on the subject from them one hears the most egregious anti-islamic statements touted in the media and in popular books as authentic knowledge of islam they are joined in this chorus by a number of christian voices from extremist groups who speak as if they were living in twelfth-century france at the time of the crusades but who are at the same time completely devoid of knowledge of traditional christian theology not to mention christian humility and charity each period of the study of islam in the west has produced its own literature usually colored by the prejudices of the period which have been for the most part anti-islamic there is in fact no religion in the world about which western authors have written so much and at the same time in such a pejorative way as islam and yet despite the persistence of this genre of writing and in fact its increase since the tragedies of september 11 2001 authentic works on islam based on truth and the intention to create mutual understanding rather than hatred works of the sort that were practically nonexistent in the earlier part of the twentieth century are now readily available in the english language the present book seeks to serve as an introduction to islam and its civilization in the spirit of such works that is in the spirit of mutual understanding and respect between islam and the west and on the basis of the

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xiv introduction truth of the teachings of islam as it has been understood by its adherents over the ages islam is not only a religion it is also the creator and living spirit of a major world civilization with a long history stretching over fourteen centuries islamic history concerns the historic existence of the peoples of many lands from north africa to malaysia over vast spans of time it has witnessed the creation of some of the greatest empires and the integration into a single social order of many diverse ethnic and linguistic groups islamic history has moreover directly affected the history of europe for over a millennium and has been in turn deeply affected by the west since the advent of the colonial period islamic history has furthermore been profoundly intertwined with the history of india since the seventh century and with certain aspects of chinese history for the past millennium and to some extent even before that going back to the century following the rise of islam islam created a civilization that has covered the middle belt of the old world for over a millennium this civilization produced great intellectual figures a distinct art and architecture dazzling achievements in science and technology and an equitable social order based on the teachings of the quran its thinkers poets musicians and artists created works that deeply influenced western as well as indian and even to some extent chinese art and thought its scientists formulated theories and carried out practices that were widely emulated by western scientists during the middle ages and even the renaissance.

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