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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 introduction conversation analysis in applied linguistics olcay sert paul seedhouse abstract this short introductory paper presents an up-to-date account of works within the field of applied linguistics which have been influenced by a conversation analytic paradigm the article reviews recent studies in classroom interaction materials development proficiency assessment and language teacher education we believe that the publication of such a special journal issue is timely since conversation analysis has been one of the most influential methodologies in recent applied linguistic research as can be seen by the growing number of publications appearing in various journals keywords conversation analysis applied linguistics language learning and teaching classroom interaction language teacher education materials development language proficiency assessment Özet bu kisa giri makalesi konu!ma Çözümlemesi yakla!imindan etkilenen uygulamali dilbilim alanindaki çali!malara dair güncel bir de erlendirme sunmaktadir Çali!mamiz sinif etkile!imi materyal geli!tirme dil yeterlili i de erlendirmesi ve yabanci dil ö retmeni yeti!tirme gibi çe!itli alanlarda yapilan güncel çali!malari taramaktadir #naniyoruz ki bu özel sayinin yayinlanmasi konu!ma Çözümlemesinin uygulamali dilbilimde son zamanlarda kullanilan en etkili yöntemlerden biri olmasi bakimindan zaman açisindan çok uygundur ki bu çe!itli dergilerde sürekli artan bu alandaki makale sayisindan anla!ilmaktadir anahtar sözcükler konu!ma Çözümlemesi uygulamali dilbilim dil ö renimi ve ö retimi sinif içi etkile!im ö retmen yeti!tirme materyal geli!tirme dil yeterlili i de erlendirmesi introduction started by sociologists harvey sacks and emanuel a schegloff in early 1960s as a `naturalistic observational discipline that could deal with the details of social action rigorously empirically and formally schegloff sacks 1973 p.289 conversation analysis henceforth ca aims to `describe analyse and understand talk as a basic and constitutive feature of human social life sidnell 2010 p.1 as an approach to the study of talk-in-interaction ca grew out of ethnomethodology as developed by garfinkel 1964 1967 which studies `the common sense resources practices and procedures through which members of a society produce and recognise mutually intelligible objects events and courses of action liddicoat 2007 p.2 although ca is rooted in ethnomethodology which can be used `to study any kind of human action seedhouse 2004 p.13 it has its own principles and procedures and focuses exclusively on actions that are manifested through talk1 the basic principles of ca according to seedhouse 2005 are as follows 1 there is order at all points in interaction talk in interaction is systematically organised deeply ordered and methodic 2 contributions to interaction are context-shaped and context-renewing contributions to interaction cannot be adequately understood except by reference to the sequential environment in which they occur and in which the participants design them to occur phd candidate ecls newcastle university uk olcay.sert@ncl.ac.uk professor of educational and applied linguistics ecls newcastle university uk paul.seedhouse@ncl.ac.uk 1 non-verbal communication and gaze can be included if the analysis draws on video-recordings 1!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse they also form part of the sequential environment in which a next contribution will occur 3 no order of detail can be dismissed a priori as disorderly accidental or irrelevant heritage 1984 p.241 ca has a detailed transcription system and a highly empirical orientation 4 analysis is bottom-up and data driven the data should not be approached with any prior theoretical assumptions regarding for example power gender or race unless there is evidence in the details of the interaction that the interactants themselves are orienting to it p.166-67 the nature of turn-taking in talk-in-interaction is at the heart of ca hutchby and wooffitt 2008 adjacency pairs repair and preference are other basic notions in relation to interactional organisation space precludes a full account of ca methodology here as our main focus will be contributions of ca to applied linguistics for a detailed account of ca methodology its treatment of data and the theoretical underpinnings see psathas 1995 liddicoat 2007 ten have 2007 hutchby and wooffitt 2008 and sidnell 2010 although focusing on application is the essence of applied linguistics ca has only relatively recently developed an applied framework as seedhouse 2011 claims `the development of an applied dimension in ca and its fundamental concern with language as a form of social action suggest a natural link with applied linguistics p.346 applied linguists then can benefit from bringing the resources of ca to bear on different domains e.g the organisation of interaction in classrooms and the assessment of learning which engage their interest and professional concerns schegloff et al 2002 this short introduction to the special issue aims at introducing briefly recent research that has been informed by the resources of ca within the field of applied linguistics with a relatively stronger focus on learning and teaching contexts and with particular reference to the articles in this issue where relevant we will first start with a consideration of instructed learning contexts as most of the studies published in this volume draw on research carried out in classroom settings the next section will review a newly emerging field which seeks to document the practices of language learning by using a micro-analytic approach namely casla this will be followed by the potential offered by a ca research paradigm in relation to language proficiency assessment materials design and development and language teacher education respectively classroom interaction the first and one of the most influential ca investigations into formal speech-exchange systems in educational settings is mchoul s 1978 study on the organisation of turns in classrooms by examining a number of violational and non-violational turn transitions for their orderliness he reveals that `the social identity contrast teacher/student is expressed in terms of differential participation rights and obligations p 211 his research called for a systematic investigation of classroom talk-in-interaction which led to book-length manuscripts within the fields of language learning and teaching e.g markee 2000 seedhouse 2004 seedhouse s work documents the interactional organisation of second language l2 classrooms and uncovers the reflexive relationship between pedagogy and interaction he stresses the dynamic nature of context by `exemplifying how the institution of the l2 classroom is talked in and out of being by participants and how teachers create l2 classroom contexts and shift from one context to another 2011 p.12 the micro-contexts of classroom interaction he identifies are procedural context task oriented context form and accuracy context and meaning and fluency context as the pedagogical focus varies so the 2 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 organisation of turn and sequence varies seedhouse 2005 and a good understanding of this reflexive relationship enables researchers to see that as walsh 2002 states `where language use and pedagogic purpose coincide learning opportunities are facilitated p.5 the findings of ca-informed classroom interaction research challenge the assumptions of earlier discourse analytic studies i.e sinclair and coulthard 1975 which try to portray classroom interaction by heavily relying on teacher-initiated three-part sequences initiationresponse-feedback/evaluation there is a growing body of micro-analytic research which allows us to have a better understanding of the context-sensitive nature of classroom interaction by reporting for instance how participants accomplish learning tasks collectively pochon-berger this issue hellermann and pekarek doehler 2010 mondada and pekarek doehler 2004 or how learners move out of irf patterns and establish student-initiated participation structures that create speaking opportunities for fellow participants waring 2009 in line with waring s research jacknick this issue demonstrates how inverted irf sequences in esl classrooms a student initiates a sequence the teacher responds and the student follows-up in the third turn enable the learners become agents of their own learning resulting in a student-directed author s emphasis learning in action the issue of students becoming agents of their own learning using certain participation devices which is also evidenced through similar findings by durus et al 2010 in efl classrooms in germany highlights the significance of agency in classroom interaction research the investigation of agency of course is not only limited to instructed language learning contexts for example mashford-scott and church this issue show how teachers promote children s agency in early learning environments in australia although there is an obvious tendency to promote learner-learner interaction and/or to minimise teacher talk/intervention so as to maximise student participation in classroom settings mostly due to the assumed pedagogical superiority of communicative approaches to teaching and task based learning a great amount of instructed language learning around the world is still undertaken through traditional ways of teaching dominated by teacher-fronted interaction and controlled by the asymmetrical nature of turn distribution therefore there is still room for further research within the interactional environments of irf patterns or the resources the teachers use to elicit student talk i.e teacher questions see koshik 2010 in this respect many scholars using a ca methodology have reinvestigated teaching and learning practices within three part sequences based on 46 hours of esl classroom instructions lee 2007 for example demonstrates how the third turn carries out the contingent task of responding to and acting on the prior turns while moving interaction forward hellermann s 2005 findings show systematic uses of pitch level and contour in triadic dialogue and provides evidence for a unique action projection of the third part in the three-part sequence also see skidmore and murakami 2010 and hellermann 2003 also in a more recent study zemel and koschmann 2011 successfully show how reinitiation of irf sequences and a tutor s organisation of his ongoing engagement with students encourage a `convergence between the doers of an action and its recipients schegloff 1992 detailed microanalysis of the features of classroom talk has also been undertaken within the higher education domain including university seminars walsh and o keeffe 2010 and university lectures christodoulidou this issue as well as content and language integrated learning clil contexts e.g kupetz this issue evnitskaya and morton 2011 in kupetz s study multimodality becomes a central focus with regards to how students carry out the interactional activity of explaining and how this activity is sequentially organised and collaboratively achieved by all participants it is obvious that recent ca research makes more 3!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse use of multimodal analysis thanks to the advancements in recording technology with this in mind researchers started to have a more comprehensive grasp of various visual and nonverbal dynamics of classroom interaction by neatly focusing on for example the use of resources like head nods pointing and gaze in turn allocation and repair kääntä 2010 this multimodal focus in language classrooms has also been used to investigate how recipiency is established mortensen 2009 how a willing next speaker is selected mortensen 2008 and the ways in which round robins are initiated and sequentially managed mortensen and hazel this issue while organising and managing tasks classroom interaction has been researched using different methods of inquiry including discourse analysis critical discourse analysis systemic functional linguistics and various qualitative and quantitative paradigms within applied linguistics ca investigation is relatively new to this field and the outcomes nonetheless have been very promising one should be aware of the fact that different research methodologies even when applied to the same discoursal data can reach diametrically opposing conclusions seedhouse 2010 with this in mind we take the position that ca is well equipped to investigate various dynamics of classroom-talk-in-interaction and shed light upon language teaching and learning practices the ca investigation of learning i.e language learning however has not been free of criticism since mental constructs like understanding and cognition have long been associated with a more cognitive and psycholinguistic approach which have been the backbone of the mainstream second language acquisition sla research firth and wagner s 1997 arguments challenged the assumptions of cognitivist research and called for 1 sensitivity to contextual and interactional aspects of language use 2 a broadening of the sla database and more importantly 3 an adoption of a more emic and participant-relevant perspective towards sla research this has led way to the newly emerging field of ca-sla and a reconceptualisation of learning as learning-in-action firth and wagner 2007 and competence-in-action pekarek doehler 2006 ca and language learning a recently emerging body of research that applies the ethnomethodological insights of ca to the analysis of second language interactions and which aims to promote language learning in various contexts has been labelled ca-for-sla markee and kasper 2004 mori and markee 2009 distinguish between ca-informed and ca-inspired approaches to sla according to them ca-inspired approaches to sla `tend to favor a relatively purist or ca-native approach to the analysis of learning talk p.2 on the contrary ca-informed approaches to sla combine it with exogenous theories e.g hellermann 2009 and firth 2009 use the notion of communities of practice jenks 2010 brings in further distinctions within the field of cafor-sla he firstly makes a distinction between a strong view and a weak view of ca-forsla the former abandoning the cognitive tradition of sla research e.g mondada and pekarek doehler 2004 and the latter favouring discussion between ca and cognitive traditions jenks s further distinctions include data-driven vs theory-driven/informed ca-forsla studies and pure vs linguistic ca p 148-51 as mentioned in the previous section ca-for-sla bases its understanding of learning and competence on and in action according to pekarek doehler 2010 learning a language involves a continuous process of adaptation of patterns of language-use-for-action in response to locally emergent communicative needs and the routinisation of these patterns through repeated participation in social activities and the resulting competencies are adaptive flexible and sensitive to the contingencies of use p.107 the construct `competence however is not easy to conceptualise young 2008 defines interactional competence as `a 4 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 relationship between the participants employment of linguistic and interactional resources and the contexts in which they are employed it is not an individual phenomenon but is coconstructed by all participants in a particular discursive practice p 101 development of interactional competence therefore should be differentiated from earlier definitions of competence i.e linguistic communicative markee 2008 proposes three components of interactional competence 1 language as a formal system includes pronunciation vocabulary grammar 2 semiotic systems including turn-taking repair sequence organization and 3 gaze and paralinguistic features ca provides a means of exploring the variable ways in which competence is co-constructed in particular contexts by the participants involved seedhouse 2011 two of the most systematic analyses of interactional development from a longitudinal perspective are hellermann 2008 and cekaite 2007 which combine ca with a framework of language socialisation other longitudinal studies include young and miller 2004 brouwer and wagner 2004 and hellermann 2006 2007 in addition to these markee 2008 develops a methodology to track l2 development longitudinally there are also cross-sectional accounts of learning in which a single or a collection of instances or a case is analysed an example of such research is brouwer 2003 who examines word search sequences between native and nonnative speakers and develops a distinction between word search sequences that act as language learning opportunities and those which do not also see lazaraton 2004 and mondada and pekarek doehler 2004 for other examples of cross-sectional studies providing evidence of learning is problematic since learning is entwined in the progress of interaction therefore `it is very difficult to isolate and extract specific phenomena with certainty seedhouse and walsh 2010 p.138 socially distributed cognition changes of epistemic stance and configuration of linguistic patterns should be observed through an empirical investigation on turn-by-turn basis to provide robust evidence of learning more importantly to have a comprehensive understanding of learning sla databases should go beyond formal instructional contexts and include domains where l2 users cook 2007 have more flexible opportunities to use the language the research settings for this broadened sense of learning domains can include workplaces firth 2009 as well as computer-mediatedcommunication contexts like online voice-based chat rooms jenks 2010 however we cannot deny the fact that language education is still mostly bound to classroom settings where there is limited access for learners to use the language they are learning outside of these formal settings i.e learners of turkish as an additional language in england ca and language proficiency assessment language proficiency interviews lpis have received growing attention among scholars whose research intersects between microanalysis of talk and proficiency assessment e.g kasper and ross 2007 2003 2001 brown 2003 lazaraton 2002 1997 young and he 1998 egbert 1998 the topics focused by these studies include similarities egbert 1998 and differences young and he 1998 between natural conversations and lpis repetition as a source of miscommunication kasper and ross 2003 and monitoring reliability and validity of lpis galacki 2008 ross 2007 lazaraton 2002 brown 2003 the ca investigations into language testing also reflect the transition from more traditional i.e a tester and a testee proficiency assessment to tests in different formats like paired tests and oral language assessment in groups gan 2010 and group discussions gan et al 2008 in addition to these studies by focusing on the behaviour of two ca-trained raters walters 2007 offers a model for iterative ca-informed second language pragmatics testing slpt development 5!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse he also investigates l2 oral pragmatic comprehension walters 2009 and provides evidence that the ca-informed test of aural-comprehension measure possesses some utility in slpt analysing language proficiency assessment interaction data and comparing the data to rater assessments sandlund and sundqvist this issue demonstrate that different types of taskrelated trouble trt reveal diverse understandings of the test task and that `doing-being a successful task manager is connected to a moderate orientation to the task and test format one should also consider the fact that international proficiency tests e.g ielts are crucial for students and institutions within and beyond higher education system especially for but not limited to mobility of learners interactions in ielts speaking tests have been investigated in order to shed light on various interactional aspects in this domain seedhouse and egbert 2006 examined 137 recorded ielts speaking tests and noted that `the interactional organization of the test differs significantly from interaction in classrooms or university settings in that the tests show very few repairs on part of the examiner even in cases where candidates produce incomprehensible turns cited in sandlund and sundqvist this issue p.94 furthermore seedhouse and harris forthcoming show that topic is a vital construct in the speaking test in which the organisation of topic must be understood as inextricably entwined with the organisation of turn-taking sequence and repair and as directly related to the institutional goal teaching practices in classrooms and the way interactional competence is assessed are mutually related does ca-informed research have the potential to overcome the limitations imposed by the l2 curriculum or taking a more direct approach in what ways can ca be directly applied to the syllabuses of speaking classes and to practices of testing speaking proficiency which tend to be product-oriented and include various constraints like testanxiety pappamihiel 2002 one potential application would be to take a process-oriented portfolio-based approach throughout a semester in speaking classes students could be grouped to discuss learner-selected or teacher-led topics and record their own conversations over time given basic training on various features of talk-in-interaction and ca transcription practices the students then can be asked to transcribe selected parts of their interaction and form a portfolio which will be monitored by teachers this kind of practice will create awareness for students on the different features of their own conversations in l2 and will also inform themselves and the teachers on the different aspects of their interaction including accuracy and fluency it is inevitable that the students will eventually be assessed at the end of the semester but this time they will be actively involved in the process as to some extent agents of their own assessment and indirectly of learning like language proficiency assessments the use of materials in instructed language learning environments is an integral part of teaching and learning processes the following section will present the ways ca has investigated and informed materials design and development materials design and development what ca can offer issues relating to the authenticity of dialogues in language teaching materials are complex and have been hotly debated seedhouse 2004 2005 for moreno jaen and peres basanta 2009 textbook conversations use artificial scripted dialogues based on someone s intuitions about what people are likely to say or in most cases drawn from written language p 287 saraç 2007 explored the beliefs of 100 turkish pre-service teachers of english on the perceived socio-pragmatic problems of the dialogues in textbooks she found that the teacher candidates do not trust the current course books used in turkey according to seedhouse 2004 ca is well positioned to portray the similarities and differences between invented dialogue and naturally occurring interaction both in terms of ordinary conversation and institutional 6 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 interaction p.228 in order to develop an understanding of the problems in teaching materials and to bring in insights from ca many researchers have investigated naturally occurring conversations for example telephone calls and work place conversations in an attempt to build links to language classrooms e.g bernsten 2002 bowles 2006 brown and lewis 2003 wong 2002 bernsten 2002 analyses pre-sequences with regards to offers requests and invitations in esl textbooks and found out that they do not occur as frequently as in ordinary conversations wong 2002 focuses on different types of sequences in phone conversations found in esl textbooks and compared them to authentic telephone conversations which showed that the conversations in textbooks are problematic and incomplete she also 2007 compares the closing sequences of 81 invented phone calls from language teaching materials with those of authentic phone calls and found a similar mismatch similarly mori 2005 reveals significant differences between the way a question word dooshite is used in beginner level japanese coursebooks and the way it is used in l1 talk these investigations show that although ca was developed to analyse only naturally occurring talk it can also be used to reveal the potential problems of using invented dialogues in language teaching materials therefore the use of transcriptions of naturally occurring talk with recordings for teaching has been promoted by applied linguists from ca circles however this would not always be possible given that ordinary conversations are not necessarily the best materials for teaching purposes we should also address the students needs by also showing examples of scripted conversations that they would enjoy in this respect the use of films and tv series could be one possible suggestion especially for adult learners in l2 classrooms sert 2009 claims that the use of tv series can be an invaluable resource for language teachers by exposing learners to multi-modal texts that contextualise the materials used through various interactional and semiotic as well as linguistic resources after illustrating some differences found in dialogues in a british tv series compared to ordinary talk e.g extended wait time and extended mutual gaze in the co-text of audience laughter sound effect lack of overlapping talk he offers a lesson plan that can be engaging for learners of english moreno jaen and peres basanta 2009 states that there is considerable potential for researchers textbook designers and teachers to take advantage of the new millennium dvd technology for embedding context in understanding and interpreting oral interactions as a fundamental prerequisite for improving students productive conversational skills p 287 the issue of analysing scripted talk has also been raised by bowles this issue he claims that the existence of poeticity in conversation has consequences for the analysis of dialogue in literature and that ca may have a role to play in this kind of study as he further puts `in classrooms the reading aloud of literary dialogue is often used for illustrative purposes to get a text out in the open with the reading acting as a prompt for subsequent class discussion here the social action of recital contributes in interesting ways to classroom talk and these deserve analysis p 167 since teachers in most cases are still playing a central role in language teaching and learning the following section will briefly introduce cainformed research on language teacher education ca-informed language teacher education one of the most influential research studies at the intersection of applied ca and reflective practice is by walsh 2006 who developed a self evaluation of teacher talk sett framework that `identifies different varieties or modes of discourse and the pedagogical aims and interactional characteristics of each seedhouse 2011 walsh 2006 2011 develops the idea of classroom interactional competence which encompasses the features of 7!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse classroom interaction that make the teaching/learning process more or less effective these features are a maximizing interactional space b shaping learner contributions seeking clarification scaffolding modelling or repairing learner input c effective use of eliciting d instructional idiolect i.e a teacher s speech habits and e interactional awareness walsh identifies four classroom micro contexts referred to as modes managerial mode refers to the way teachers organize the class and move between activities mccarten 2007 in managerial mode the pedagogical goals are to transmit information to organize the physical learning environment to refer learners to materials to introduce or conclude an activity and to change from one mode of learning to another in relation to this mode the identified interactional features are 1 a single extended teacher turn which uses explanations and/or instructions 2 the use of transitional markers 3 the use of confirmation checks and 4 an absence of learner contributions as for the classroom context mode the pedagogical goals are to enable learners to express themselves clearly to establish a context and to promote oral fluency the interactional features of this mode are extended learner turns short teacher turns minimal repair content feedback referential questions scaffolding and clarification requests in skills and systems mode on the other hand different interactional features are identified as extended teacher turns direct repair display questions and form-focused feedback it is obvious that there is a different pedagogical focus in this mode which is to enable learners to produce correct forms to allow the learners to manipulate the target language to provide corrective feedback and to display correct answers lastly in materials mode the pedagogical goals are to provide language practice around a piece of material to elicit responses in relation to the material to check and display answers to clarify when necessary and to evaluate contributions the interactional features are extensive use of display questions form-focused feedback corrective repair and the use of scaffolding considering that effective mentoring sine qua non is an integral part of teacher education a large number of studies have investigated the effects of mentoring in relation to teachers practice using a ca framework carroll 2005 hall 2001 lazaraton and ishihara 2005 strong and baron 2004 hall 2001 for example studies the conversations of academics and teachers suggesting that teaching and therefore student learning are improved through teacher learning and development additionally carroll 2005 develops a theoretical framework for examining interactive talk and its relationship to professional learning in teacher study groups by comparing the interactional practices of a trainee teacher and an experienced teacher seedhouse 2008 shows how and why the instructions which trainee teachers give manage to confuse students and what experienced teachers typically do right so that the students are able to carry out the required procedures lastly sert 2010 proposes a workable ca-informed framework to be implemented into language teacher education curriculum in turkey by combining insights from critical reflective practice teacher language awareness walsh 2003 wright 2002 and effective mentoring conclusion in this chapter we have argued that ca has been employed in many different ways in applied linguistics ca has been employed to investigate classroom interaction and to develop areas such as teacher training testing and materials design it has helped to develop our understanding of how constructs such as learning and competence are realised in interaction perhaps its main contributions have been to provide us with a realistic idea of what actually happens in language learning talk and to enable a process account of language learning through interaction 8 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 what are the possible future directions for ca research in the area of language learning and teaching seedhouse 2011 suggests that studies will examine a wider range of languages being learnt and taught using a wider range of teaching practices and activities in a wider range of contexts another likely growth area is research into technology-based forms of communication e.g webchat and skype and their implications for language learning it is not yet clear however how many of the basic principles of ca can be applied to such a medium multimodal methods for data presentation and analysis see kupetz this issue are sure to be high on the agenda the nature of data presented in ca studies has always been linked to technological developments and no doubt further developments will have an impact in this area references bernsten s g 2002 using conversation analysis to evaluate pre-sequences in invitation offer and request dialogues in esl textbooks university of illinois urbanachampaign bowles h 2006 bridging the gap between conversation analysis and esp an applied study of the opening sequences of ns and nns service telephone calls english for specific purposes 25 332-357 bowles h 2011 the contribution of ca to the study of literary dialogue novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 161-168 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/bowles.pdf brown a 2003 interviewer variation and the co-construction of speaking proficiency language testing 201 1-25 brown t.p and lewis m 2003 an esp project analysis of an authentic workplace conversation english for specific purposes 22 93-98 brouwer c 2003 word searches in nns-ns interaction opportunities for language learning the modern language journal 874 534-545 brouwer c e and wagner j 2004 developmental issues in second language conversation journal of applied linguistics 11 30-47 carroll d 2005 learning through interactive talk a school-based mentor teacher study group as a context for professional learning teacher and teacher education 21 457473 cekaite a 2007 a child s development of interactional competence in a swedish l2 classroom the modern language journal 911 45-62 christodoulidou m 2011 lexical markers within the university lecture novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 143-160 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/chistodoulidou.pdf cook v 2007 the nature of the l2 user in roberts l gurel a tatar s and marti l eds eurosla yearbook 7 205-20 durus n ludwig m sert o steinkraus r and ziegler g 2010 turn-initials as learners participation devices turning out in elf discourse new insights into the study of conversation applications to the language classroom may 26-28 2010 university of granada granada spain egbert m 1998 miscommunication in language proficiency interviews of first-year german students comparison with natural conversation in r young a he eds talking and testing discourse approaches to the assessment of oral proficiency pp 147-69 amsterdam benjamins 9!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse evnitskaya n and morton t 2011 knowledge construction meaning-making and interaction in clil science classroom communities of practice language and education 252 109-127 firth a and wagner j 1997 on discourse communication and some fundamental concepts in sla research the modern language journal 81 285-300 firth a and wagner j 2007 second/foreign language learning as a social accomplishment elaborations on a `reconceptualised sla the modern language journal 91 800-819 firth a 2009 doing not being a foreign language learner english as a lingua franca in the workplace and some implications for sla international review of applied linguistics in language teaching 471 127-156 galaczi e d 2008 peer-peer interaction in a speaking test the case of the first certificate in english examination language assessment quarterly 52 89-119 gan z 2010 interaction in group oral assessment a case study of higher and lowerscoring students language testing 274 585-602 gan z davison c hamp-lyons l 2008 topic negotiation in peer group oral assessment situations a conversation analytic approach applied linguistics 303 315-344 garfinkel h 1964 studies in the routine grounds of everyday activities social problems 11 225-50 garfinkel h 1967 studies in ethnomethodology cambridge polity hall g 2001 relationships in a professional development school teachers and academics learning together through their talk atea conference-teacher education change of heart mind and action melbourne 24-26 september 2001 1-9 hellermann j 2003 the interactive work of prosody in the irf exchange teacher repetition in feedback moves language in society 32 79­104 hellermann j 2005 the sequential and prosodic co-construction of a `quiz game activity in classroom talk journal of pragmatics 37 919-944 hellermann j 2006 classroom interactive practices for literacy applied linguistics 27 377­404 hellermann j 2007 the development of practices for action in classroom dyadic interaction focus on task openings the modern language journal 911 83-96 hellermann j 2008 social actions for classroom language learning clevedon multilingual matters hellermann j 2009 practices for dispreferred responses using no by a learner of english international review of applied linguistics in language teaching 471 95-126 hellermann j and pekarek doehler s 2010 on the contingent nature of languagelearning-tasks classroom discourse 11 25-45 heritage j 1984 garfinkel and ethnomethodology cambridge polity press hutchby i and wooffitt r 2008 conversation analysis 2nd edition cambridge polity press jacknick c m 2011 but this is writing post-expansion in student-initiated sequences novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 39-54 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/jacknick.pdf jenks c j 2010 adaptation in online voice-based chat rooms implications for language learning in applied linguistics in seedhouse p walsh s and jenks c eds conceptualising learning in applied linguistics pp 147-162 basingstoke palgrave macmillan kasper g ross s 2001 is drinking a hobby i wonder other-initiated repair in language proficiency interviews paper presented at aaal st louis ms 10 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 kasper g ross s 2003 repetition as a source of miscommunication in oral proficiency interviews in j house g kasper s ross eds misunderstanding in social life discourse approaches to problematic talk pp 82-106 harlow,uk longman/pearson education kasper g ross s 2007 multiple questions in oral proficiency interviews journal of pragmatics 39 2045-2070 kääntä l 2010 teacher turn-allocation and repair practices in classroom interaction a multisemiotic perspective unpublished phd thesis university of jyväskylä jyväskylä koshik i 2010 questions that convey information in teacher-student conferences in freed a.f and ehrlich s why do you ask the function of questions in institutional discourse 159-186 new york oxford university press kupetz m 2011 multimodal resources in students explanations in clil interaction novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 121-141 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1 kupetz.pdf lazaraton a 1997 preference organization in oral proficiency interviews the case of language ability assessments research on language and social interaction 301 53-72 lazaraton a 2002 a qualitative approach to the validation of oral language tests cambridge cambridge university press lazaraton a 2004 gesture and speech in the vocabulary explanations of one esl teacher a microanalytic inquiry language learning 541 79­117 lazaraton a ishihara n 2005 understanding second language teacher practice using microanalysis and self-reflection a collaborative case study the modern language journal 894 529-542 lee y 2007 third turn position in teacher talk contingency and the work of teaching journal of pragmatics 39 180-206 liddicoat a j 2007 an introduction to conversation analysis london continuum markee n 2000 conversation analysis new jersey routledge markee n 2008 toward a learning behavior tracking methodology for ca-for-sla applied linguistics 29 404-427 markee n and kasper g 2004 classroom talks an introduction the modern language journal 88 491­500 mashford-scott a and church a 2011 promoting children s agency in early childhood education novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 15-38 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/mashford-scott_church.pdf mccarten j 2007 teaching vocabulary lessons from the corpus lessons from the classroom new york cambridge university press mchoul a 1978 the organization of turns at formal talk in the classroom language in society 7 183-213 mondada l pekarek doehler s 2004 second language acquisition as situated practice task accomplishment in the french second language classroom the modern language journal 884 501-518 moreno jaen m and perez basanta c 2009 developing conversational competence through language awareness and multimodality the use of dvds recall 213 283-301 mori j 2005 why not why the teaching of grammar discourse sociolinguistic and cross-cultural perspectives japanese language and literature 392 255-289 11!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse mori j and markee n 2009 language learning cognition and interactional practices an introduction international review of applied linguistics in language teaching 471 1-9 mortensen k 2008 selecting next-speaker in the second language classroom how to find a willing next-speaker in planned activities journal of applied linguistics 51 5579 mortensen k 2009 establishing recipiency in pre-beginning position in the second language classroom discourse processes 465 491-515 mortensen k and hazel s 2011 initiating round robins in the l2 classroom ­ preliminary observations novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 55-70 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/mortensen_hazel.pdf pappamihiel n e 2002 english as a second language students and english language anxiety issues in the mainstream classroom research in the teaching of english 363 327-355 pekarek doehler s 2006 compètence et langage en action bulletin suisse de linguistique appliquè 84 9-45 pekarek doehler s 2010 conceptual changes and methodological challenges on language learning and documenting learning in conversation analytic sla research in seedhouse p walsh s and jenks c eds conceptualising learning in applied linguistics pp 105-126 basingstoke palgrave macmillan pochon-berger e 2011 a participant s perspective on tasks from task instruction through pre-task planning to task accomplishment novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 71-90 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/pochon-berger.pdf psathas g 1995 conversation analysis thousand oaks ca sage ross s 2007 a comparative task-in-interaction analysis of opi backsliding journal of pragmatics 39 2017-2044 sandlund e and sundqvist p 2011 managing task-related trouble in l2 oral proficiency tests contrasting interaction data and rater assessment novitas-royal research on youth and language 51 91-120 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_5_1/sandlund_sundqvist.pdf saraç h.s 2007 Ö retmen adaylarinin 8 sinif #ngilizce ders kitabindaki diyaloglarin etkinli i konusunda inançlari toplumedim sorunlari kastamonu e!itim dergisi kastamonu journal of education 151 401-410 schegloff e a sacks h 1973 opening up closings semiotica 7 289-327 schegloff emanuel a 1992 repair after next turn the last structurally provided defense of intersubjectivity in conversation american journal of sociology 975 1295 1345 schegloff e.a koshik i jacoby s and olsher d 2002 conversation analysis and applied linguistics annual review of applied linguistics 22 3-31 seedhouse p 2004 the interactional architecture of the language classroom a conversation analysis perspective malden ma blackwell seedhouse p 2005 conversation analysis and language learning language teaching 384 165-187 seedhouse p 2008 learning to talk the talk conversation analysis as a tool for induction of trainee teachers chapter in garton s richards k eds professional encounters in tesol pp 42-57 basingstoke palgrave macmillan seedhouse p 2010 how research methodologies influence findings novitas-royal research on youth and language 41 1-15 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_4_1/seedhouse.pdf 12 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 1-14 seedhouse p 2011 conversation analytic research into language teaching and learning in hinkel e ed the handbook of research in second language teaching and learning volume ii pp 345-363 routledge seedhouse p egbert m 2006 the interactional organisation of the ielts speaking test ielts research reports vol 6 pp 161-206 seedhouse p and harris a in preparation topic development in the ielts speaking test ielts research reports seedhouse p and walsh s 2010 learning a second language through classroom interaction in seedhouse p walsh s and jenks c eds conceptualising learning in applied linguistics pp 127-146 basingstoke palgrave macmillan sert o 2009 developing interactional competence by using tv series in english as an additional language classrooms enletawa journal 2 23-50 sert o 2010 a proposal for a ca-integrated english language teacher education program in turkey asian efl journal special issue on english language teacher education and development issues and perspectives in asia ed eva bernat 123 62-97 sidnell j 2010 conversation analysis an introduction west sussex uk wileyblackwell sinclair j.m coulthard r.m 1975 towards an analysis of discourse the english used by teachers and pupils london oxford university press skidmore d and murakami k 2010 how prosody marks shifts in footing in classroom discourse international journal of educational research 492-3 69-77 strong m baron w 2004 an analysis of mentoring conversations with beginning teachers suggestions and responses teaching and teacher education 20 47-57 ten have p 2007 doing conversation analysis 2nd edition london sage walsh s 2002 construction or obstruction teacher talk and learner involvement in the efl classroom language teaching research 61 3-23 walsh s 2003 developing interactional awareness in the second language classroom language awareness 12 124-42 walsh s 2006 investigating classroom discourse london routledge walsh s and o keeffe a 2010 investigating higher education seminar talk novitasroyal research on youth and language 42 141-158 retrieved from http www.novitasroyal.org/vol_4_2/walsh_okeeffe.pdf walsh s 2011 exploring classroom discourse language in action oxon routledge walters f s 2007 a conversation-analytic hermeneutic rating protocol to assess l2 oral pragmatic competence language testing 272 155-183 walters f s 2009 a conversation analysis-informed test of l2 aural pragmatic comprehension tesol quarterly 431 29-54 waring h z 2009 moving out of irf initiation-response-feedback a single case analysis language learning 594 796-824 wong j 2002 applying conversation analysis in applied linguistics evaluating dialogue in english as a second language textbooks international review of applied linguistics in language teaching 40 37-60 wong j 2007 answering my call a look at telephone closings in bowles h p seedhouse eds conversation analysis and language for specific purposes pp 271 304 bern peter lang wright t 2002 doing language awareness issues for language study in language teacher education in trappes-lomax h ferguson g eds language in language teacher education pp 113-130 london john benjamin young r f 2008 language and interaction a resource book oxon routledge 13!

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special issue conversation analysis in educational and applied linguistics sert seedhouse young r.f and he a eds 1998 talking and testing discourse approaches to the assessment of oral proficiency amsterdam benjamins young r f and miller e r 2004 learning as changing participation discourse roles in esl writing conferences the modern language journal 88 519­535 zemel a and koschmann t 2011 pursuing a question reinitiating ire sequences as a method of instruction journal of pragmatics 432 475-488 14 !

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novitas-royal research on youth and language 2011 5 1 15-38 promoting children s agency in early childhood education angela mashford-scott amelia church abstract using conversation analysis ca this study identifies features of teacher-child interactions that enable opportunities for children s active participation in early learning environments specifically how teachers promote children s agency in the resolution of their peer disputes the analysis focuses on two particular episodes of teacher intervention selected from a total of 28 hours of video-recorded observations in two early childhood education settings with three to five-year-old children the first demonstrates how a teacher can facilitate the collaborative resolution of a dispute the second demonstrates how a teacher can respond to a child s report of conflict by positioning herself as a non-participant while different strategies were utilized in each of these episodes redirecting responsibility to the children themselves was found to be the key practice in facilitating children s agency in these interventions knowledge and insights gained through conversation analysis contribute to our understanding of how teachers and children collaboratively achieve opportunities for agency keywords early childhood education conversation analysis child agency teacher intervention Özet bu çali!ma konu!ma Çözümlemesi kullanarak okul öncesi çevrelerde çocuklarin aktif katilimina imkanlar sa layan ö retmen-çocuk etkile!im özelliklerini özellikle ö retmenlerin çocuklarin etkinli ini ihtilaflarin çözümünde nasil te!vik etti ini belirlemektedir Çözümleme 3-5 ya arasindaki çocuklari içeren iki okul öncesi e itim ortamindaki 28 saatlik video-kayitli gözlemlerden seçilmi iki bölümlük ö retmen müdahalesine odaklanmaktadir #lki bir ö retmenin bir anla!mazli i i!birliksel olarak nasil çözümledi ini ikincisi bir ö retmenin çocu un anla!mazlik !ikayetine katilimci olmadan nasil tepki verebilece ini göstermektedir her bir bölümde farkli stratejiler kullanilmasina ra men sorumlulu u çocuklara yönlendirmenin her iki durumda da çocuk etkinli ine olanak sa lamasi açisindan anahtar uygulama oldu u bulunmu!tur konu!ma Çözümlemesi nden edinilen bilgi ve içgörüler ö retmen ve ö rencilerin etkinlik için firsatlari i!birlikçi olarak nasil de erlendirdi ini anlamamiza olanak sa lamaktadir anahtar sözcükler okul öncesi e itim konu!ma Çözümlemesi çocuk etkinli i ö retmen müdahalesi introduction1 in australia a growing awareness of the formative impact of the early years2 on children s longterm development has intensified sociopolitical interest and discussion surrounding how to give phd candidate melbourne graduate school of education the university of melbourne australia a.mashfordscott@unimelb.edu.au lecturer melbourne graduate school of education the university of melbourne australia achurch@unimelb.edu.au 1 this research was funded by a grant from the collier charitable fund thanks are due to the children and teachers who participated in the project !in australia and for much of international early childhood education terms such as `early childhood and `young child typically refer to the period of a child s life prior to entry into formal schooling i.e birth to approximately five years of age therefore early childhood `settings `environments or `classrooms refer to educational and care programs or services that young children attend outside of the home which are implemented by early childhood trained professionals 15

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