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discourse studies http dis.sagepub.com introduction the potential of peer talk shoshana blum-kulka and catherine e snow discourse studies 2004 6 291 doi 10.1177/1461445604044290 the online version of this article can be found at http dis.sagepub.com/content/6/3/291 published by http www.sagepublications.com additional services and information for discourse studies can be found at email alerts http dis.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts subscriptions http dis.sagepub.com/subscriptions reprints http www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.nav permissions http www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav citations http dis.sagepub.com/content/6/3/291.refs.html downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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291 introduction the potential of peer talk shoshana blum-kulka hebrewuniversity j e ru salemc at herinee snowha rva rduniversity discourse studies copyright © 2004 sage publications london thousand oaks ca and new delhi www.sagepublications.com vol 63 291­306 1461-4456 200408 6:3 10.1177/1461445604044290 abstr ac t research on children interacting with each other encompasses a wide variety of specific research interest including but not limited to a focus on language in this introduction to an issue of discourse studies devoted to the contribution of peer talk to pragmatic development we define `peer talk as an interdisciplinary field of inquiry and we critically review literature on the role of peer talk in children s pragmatic development we suggest that `peer talk as a field of inquiry properly encompasses studies of the development of language through peer interaction as well as the ways in which peer talk functions in children s co-construction of their social and cultural worlds research reviewed here suggests that peer talk may be a crucial site for pragmatic development offering children a wide range of opportunities for mutual learning of interactive as well as linguistic skills the evidence we review which comes from the fields of language socialization second language learning and child-discourse highlights two major contextual features of peer talk 1 its collaborative multi-party symmetrical participation structure and 2 its role in the co-constructed worlds of childhood culture finally we call for research and theorizing that would bridge the gap between developmental and ethnographically-informed approaches to the study of child discourse in order to ensure that children s peer talk receives the attention due it as a major site for both the development of discourse skills and the creation of childhood culture child discourse language development peer interaction peer talk pragmatic development key words waiting at a terminal in rome to board a flight that has been delayed one of us watches a girl of about six looking at a book with her grandmother reading it and talking about it as they finish the book the plane still not boarding grandfather is called on to help marking boxes on what seem from a distance to be work-sheets at some point the girl notices her younger brother trying unsuccessfully to buy a downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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292 discourse studies 63 cold drink from the soft drinks dispenser she runs over to him demonstrates and explains to him it s difficult to hear the exact words but the gist is clear how to operate the machine the two children jointly try again in vain and the girl announces loudly to all `it s broken the little girl in these scenes moves between two sites crucial for language socialization adult­child interaction and child­child interaction the first is easily identifiable to even the casual observer as an opportunity for the child to learn about language and literacy this type of interaction has also been widely and intensely studied it is characterized by developmentalists and by anthropologists as an opportunity for language socialization to unfold in the process of continuous interaction between children and adults in both dyadic and multiparty participation structures the second type of interaction whether among siblings as here among mixed-aged child groups in samoa or kenya or among groups of same-age children such as are typical of preschools and kindergartens in the west offers opportunities for language socialization in which children presumably learn how to talk and how to act from observing responding to and correcting each other we say `presumably here because particularly in contrast to adult­child talk child­child talk has been studied relatively unsystematically and with little attention to its potential consequences for development interest in peer talk is not recent the topic was initiated in the late 1970s by ervin-tripp and mitchell-kernan 1977 but attention to the nature of peer talk to the factors influencing peer talk and to the consequences of peer talk for children s social and linguistic development has been sparse intermittent and scattered since 1977 this special issue devoted to the topic of child­child interactions is an attempt to awaken interest in the study of naturally occurring peer talk the five articles collected here span an array of cultures languages and settings but all display the opportunities peer talk offers young children to negotiate complicated social challenges using language and thus to develop more sophisticated language capacities ultimately we hope this special issue will contribute to laying the theoretical and methodological foundation for the systematic study of naturally occurring peer talk among children mapping the field perhaps peer interaction among preschool and young school-aged children has been a somewhat peripheral and non-cumulative field of research compared at least to adult­child interaction because studies of peer interaction derive from a number of different intellectual traditions which have had little contact with one another for example anthropologists have long noted that in some cultures young children spend most of their time in mixed-age peer groups or that caretaking responsibilities for toddlers are entrusted to slightly older siblings or cousins e.g levine 1990 levine et al 1994 rogoff 1981 watson-gegeo and gegeo 1989 whiting and whiting 1975 implications of these environments for young children s development have not been systematically studied in the downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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blum-kulka and snow introduction the potential of peer talk 293 anthropological literature conversely developmental psychologists have studied peer-relationships such as childhood friendships e.g barr 1997 hartup and rubin 1986 selman 1980 or the emergence and remediation of antisocial isolated or bullying children in peer groups e.g selman et al 1997 but often with little attention either to the larger social structures within which such social relations develop or to the language that children use to negotiate these social relations child language researchers have occasionally attended to peer talk primarily because it is a context that expands the range of observable linguistic phenomena rather than because it is seen to have unique affordances for promoting language development e.g keenan 1974 research on children interacting with each other encompasses a wide variety of interests including but not limited to a focus on language though the terms `peer interaction and `peer talk are often used interchangeably we take peer interaction as the superordinate category and focus our attention on the more specific subcategory of peer talk peer interaction the more general phenomenon which has been studied both experimentally and through participant observation of naturally occurring interaction has been of interest to scholars coming from at least five distinct perspectives 1 the cross-cultural perspective with its sociocultural theory of socialization within which researchers have studied patterns of child-rearing in different communities around the world e.g rogoff 2003 whiting and whiting 1975 2 the social-psychological perspective focusing in damon s 1984 terms on `the untapped potential of peer interaction for social development e.g handel 1988 3 the perspective of child sociolinguists who are interested in the ways that children use language and vary their language as a function of setting and interlocutors e.g hemphill and siperstein 1990 4 the psychological perspective of cognitive development which has generated many experimental studies of the relative benefits of peer learning compared to child­adult learning see rogoff 1990 for a review of this tradition and 5 the educational perspective within which child `collaborative learning has been widely adopted for its effectiveness in promoting subjectmatter achievement in math and science for example e.g davenport and howe 1999 mercer et al 1999 schwartz neuman and biezuner 2000 evidence concerning peer talk the field of peer talk or child-discourse encompasses in our mapping of it research that either focuses directly on the development of language through peer talk and/or on the ways in which peer talk functions in children s coconstruction of their social and cultural worlds thus peer-talk research differs from the non-language focused field of peer interaction on at least four counts 1 its practitioners share a social-interactionist constructivist stance on socialization considering children as highly active agents in the process e.g corsaro 1985 1997 eder 1995 fine 1988 harré 1974 watson-gegeo and nielsen 2003 2 its practitioners take seriously questions about how and under what downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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294 discourse studies 63 conditions peer talk functions in children s learning about language and about cultural rules and commitments 3 language as the object of study is conceptualized as a system for communication within which communicative effectiveness and pragmatic appropriateness are the key motives for child learning and pragmatic skills are viewed as a central part of the developmental challenge of language learning and 4 the basic data consist of transcripts of natural talk among children and data analysis tools draw from both discourse-analytical and quantitative traditions the history of the field of peer talk can be traced to the work of garvey 1974 1975 on talk during peer play and to the publication of the issue entitled child discourse 1977 edited by susan ervin-tripp and claudia mitchellkernan and aimed explicitly `at establishing the interdisciplinary study of children s discourse as a new field the bulk of work that followed has despite its informativeness only partially met this challenge studies of child discourse with an anthropological orientation have revealed how participation in peer cultures is crucial for children s interpretive reproduction and co-construction of specific language-bound cultural patterns such as hawaiian talk-story boggs 1990 food-sharing peace-making and exchange rituals among israeli children katriel 1991 african-american children s unique patterns of dispute goodwin 1990 or italian and american children s styles of argumentation corsaro and rizzo 1990 childhood culture has been in focus also from sociological sociolinguistic and psychological perspectives pinpointing the discursive ways in which children collaboratively co-construct social relationships in play corsaro 1985 negotiate gender identities faris 2000 kyratzis 1999 and frame the passage in and out of pretend play aronsson and thorell 2002 sawyer 1997 yet with a few exceptions ervin-tripp 1982 ervin-tripp and gordon 1986 ervin-tripp and mitchell-kernan 1977 for requests mctear 1985 and dorval and eckerman 1984 for conversational skills studies of peer talk have focused on one discourse phenomenon at one point in time for example kyratzis and ervin-tripp 1999 studied discourse markers kuntay and senay 2003 studied multi-party story-telling and aukrust 2001 studied meta-pragmatic discourse among preschoolers these focused studies leave important gaps in our knowledge concerning the specific contribution of peer talk to pragmatic development nevertheless available research in both peer interaction and peer talk strongly suggests that peer talk may prove to be a crucial site for pragmatic development offering children a wide range of opportunities for mutual learning of pragmatic as well as linguistic skills to evaluate this evidence we consider in the next section relevant findings from the fields of language socialization second language learning and child discourse we then go on to formulate some of the unanswered questions open for future research the evidence from language socialization research one of the basic tenets of language socialization research is that children become downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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blum-kulka and snow introduction the potential of peer talk 295 members of their culture by acting like members in watson-gegeo and nielsen s formulation `ls research has shown that children learn culture largely through participation in linguistically marked events the structures integrity and characteristics of which they come to understand through verbal cues to such meanings 2003 158 from this sociocultural viewpoint the learning of language and culture are deeply intertwined children learn them simultaneously through participation in the cultural practices of their communities in peer talk children have opportunities to learn not just as novice participants but also in their role as experts the involvement of children as agents of language socialization is evident for the many cultures where the care of toddlers is entrusted to their older siblings as is the case for polynesian children martini and kirpatrick 1992 mayan children in mexico rogoff 1981 or africanamerican children in louisiana ward 1971 as argued by rogoff 2003 children s engagement in multi-age groups offers them ample opportunities to learn many aspects of social behavior ­ from how to dress and help with household chores to how to handle conflicts and compromises simultaneously older siblings are young children s primary conversational partners thus their major source of linguistic input the language development of younger siblings in these settings is dependent on the capacity of the older siblings to provide input and maintain linguistic interactions that support language learning furthermore evidence of direct language teaching by siblings comes from many studies african-american children in louisiana taught their younger siblings to recite the alphabet play word games and name colors and numbers ward 1971 african-american girls in the piedmont engaged younger children in word play counting and naming body parts heath 1983 and american-israeli bilingual teenagers engaged their younger siblings in bilingual word-play olshtain and blum-kulka 1989 these studies of naturally occurring talk confirmed findings from structured observations shatz and gelman 1973 that children aged 5­7 adapted their speech to younger children in ways that to some extent resembled the adaptations made by adults talking to young children children s lore passed on from one generation of children to the next typically with no intervention from adults is another domain where the active role of children as language teachers comes to the fore rich child folklore in games insults nicknames epithets jokes riddles and songs has been described for the children of africa serpell 1993 as well as for american knapp and knapp 1976 and british children opie and opie 1959 these child language practices which are often unknown to or disapproved of by adults show how children sustain and transmit a culture of their own further testifying to the significance of peer groups as a socialization force the evidence from second language learning a number of lines of evidence from the field of second language acquisition support the claim that peer talk generates language learning in preschools in downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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296 discourse studies 63 the usa and israel for example it is common that immigrant children acquire english or hebrew respectively exclusively from exposure to the new language at school primarily from classmates see for studies of american preschools tabors 1997 tabors et al 2000 we are unaware of equivalent studies in israeli preschools these children continue to hear their native language at home often from parents who have only minimal control over the target language and thus are playing no substantive role except possibly a motivational one in supporting the acquisition of the societal language of course in these preschool settings input from adult teachers or caregivers is also available and may be crucial but particularly in preschools serving lower-income families the quality of the adultgenerated language environment is quite poor furthermore direct observations in such centers makes it clear that much language is learned from peers tabors 1997 gives examples of englishlanguage learners repeating expressions overheard from peers and incorporating words from peer interlocutors into their responses the articles in this issue by aukrust and cekaite and aronsson address precisely the issue of how second language learners use peer talk it is important to note though that these studies of young second language learners confirm the importance of language in the social structures established by preschoolers and thus the limitations on peers as language teachers in observations in us preschools non-englishspeaking children are largely ignored by their peers until they can produce some words in english tabors and snow 1994 and their initial attempts at communication e.g a native chinese speaker using `shut up to invite a classmate into the upper floor of a playhouse evidently misled by the up are often unsuccessful precisely because peers are not willing to work as hard as adults to repair misunderstandings hirschler 1991 trained 3-to-5-year-old native english speakers in some conversational moves invitations to speak clarification questions they could use with english-language learning peers these moves were successful in getting children with very limited proficiency in english involved in conversations but only a couple of the children who received the training were effective at implementing the moves thus while peers can be powerful sources of language input and information they are not helpful to learners in the earliest stages of acquiring the target language some social engineering both of the peer capacities and of the newcomer s communicative attempts is necessary to ensure optimal effectiveness educational structures designed to use peer talk to promote second language learning are more effective than those designed to rely entirely on adults as a source of the second language christian 1996 christian et al 1997 thus for example us two-way bilingual programs http www.cal.org/twi in which spanish chinese or another language is used half the time during instruction and in which half the students are native speakers of that other language and the other half native speakers of english generate faster acquisition of english by the immigrant students than bilingual classrooms where such children have no native english-speaking classmates thomas and collier 2002 such downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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blum-kulka and snow introduction the potential of peer talk 297 programs also produce notably better acquisition of spanish or chinese by the english speakers than do foreign language or single immersion programs in which there are no peer native speakers of the target language another source of evidence for the value of peers is the greater effectiveness and efficiency of second-language learning learning the other language in a context where it can be used outside the classroom over foreign-language learning the difference between second-language and foreign-language settings is precisely access to native speakers highlighting the role that native-speaking peers can play in supporting and promoting language acquisition for learners of any age not just children these observations from the relative efficiency of various educational arrangements are reinforced by case study data of young second language learners many such reports document the role of friendship-based peer interactions in promoting children s second language proficiency peck 1978 in providing adapted simplified and corrective feedback including even child `foreigner talk and in offering young second language learners useful language forms e.g 5-year-old paul s earliest english words `shut up and `get out of here see huang and hatch 1978 and language-structured activities e.g nora s `how do you do these as documented by wong fillmore 1979 on which they can build further interactions and further learning as noted by kasper 2001 evidence that native peers are successful language teachers fits well with vygotskyan s notion of the zone of proximal development the more competent native speakers can be considered the experts responding in zones of proximal development to the less competent learners studies that show scaffolded help provided by teachers as well as peers in japanese kanagy 1999 and american fassler 1998 immersion kindergarten classes and esl classrooms duff 1995 further confirm this observation wiles 1985 for example noted in her recordings of british classrooms with bilingual children many instances of native children helping the immigrant children ­ providing the `right word modeling whole sentences and tailoring help given during reading to the ability of the immigrant child more surprisingly there is also evidence to suggest that roles of expert and novice are dynamic and interchangeable and hence weaker as well as stronger learners can profit from group learning for example ohta 1995 studied the request strategies used in role-play by pairs of japanese students with unequal l2 proficiency the students exchanged the roles of expert and novice assisting each other in reaching higher levels of pragmatic competence failure of full second language learning in two settings ­ immersion programs and international schools ­ represents another source of data about the importance of peer talk language immersion programs such as those first introduced in canada to ensure access to french for the anglophone population lambert and tucker 1972 create schools in which the only native speakers of the target language are the teachers who are typically outnumbered 25 to 1 by second language speakers nonetheless all the interaction in immersion classrooms is meant to be carried on in the children s second language it is clear that downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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298 discourse studies 63 they are thus exposed to a relatively high density of ungrammatical usage and unconventional language forms these become institutionalized within immersion programs selinker 1975 swain 1981 and are often passed on like the child folklore opie and opie 1959 documented without adult sanction or support ­ in fact the fluent but ungrammatical french immersion graduates speak is deplored by their teachers international schools where instruction goes on in a language that is native to only a subset of the students and in which almost all the students are bilingual in the instructional and the societal language also give rise to school-specific interlanguages incomprehensible to outsiders but key in defining the peer culture of students at the school these several cases confirm that children even at a very young age can serve as powerful sources of input about the language system for peer learners and that peer groups can under certain circumstances converge on shared language norms that deviate from those acceptable to adult speakers of the same languages the evidence from child­child discourse a range of affordances in gibson s 1982 ecological theory the term `affordances designates what the environment offers or means to the animal like sandoval 2003 we borrow and extend the term in our case to refer to the context-specific potential contributions of peer talk to pragmatic development we propose to evaluate such contributions in view of two major contextual features of peer talk 1 its collaborative multi-party symmetrical participation structure and 2 its shared worlds of childhood culture pa rt i c i pat ionst ru cture thead va n ta gesofbeingeq ua l peer talk unfolds in pairs or groups of children unhindered by the inherent asymmetry of adult­child interaction the more equal participant structure of peer groups may be conducive to both cognitive and pragmatic development rogoff 1990 highlights piaget s 1977 argument that children s discussions with adults are less conducive to cognitive development than their discussions with equals ­ while the superiority of adults might intimidate children from freely expressing their ideas other children can provide the opportunity for discussion and reciprocal exchanges thus promoting the types of social interaction conducive to cognitive development we would like to argue that from the point of view of discursive learning the question is not one of `more or `less learning but rather of context-specific gains thus multi-party intergenerational settings offer children a whole range of opportunities unavailable in or different from those of child­adult dyadic interactions blum-kulka and snow 2002 similarly the specifics of peer group participant structure are important in allowing for types of collaboration unavailable in or different from all types of adult­child discourse thus practice in the full range of narrative genres available at a given age level is practicable only in peer talk preece 1987 as well as the opportunity downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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blum-kulka and snow introduction the potential of peer talk 299 for story-rounds among peers kuntay and senay 2003 or the negotiation of power asymmetries in same-sex groups goodwin 2002 structural equality in status also allows for reciprocity in expert­novice roles our preschool observations have yielded several instances of direct child­child teaching one boy teaching a girl how to play a computer game one boy showing another how to make a snake from dough a girl teaching another a new song a boy teaching another a new word blum-kulka and huck-taglicht 2002 the expert­novice configurations created during each instance like this as well as when children make metapragmatic comments to each other aukrust 2001 or direct the behavior of peers pellegrini 1982 are dynamic and short-lived expert­novice roles may change with real or claimed expertise situating the same child alternately in the learning or teaching position theshared wo rldsofchildhoodcu lt u r e the anthropologist debbie golden recounted to one of us her difficulties collaborating with her 8-year-old son in play in the absence of same age playmates while on a visit to his grandparents the boy enlisted his mother to play but soon got frustrated by her inability to follow the thread of the fantasy play he had embarked on particularly in pretend play young children display an amazing ability to collaborate in developing elaborate story-plots loosely associated with scripts and characters of popular culture often freely mixing several sources e.g auwarter 1986 blum-kulka in press a göncü 1993 nicolopoulou and richner this issue sawyer 1997 in these pretend play episodes children need to be highly attentive to each other in order to be able to make the next relevant contribution to the plot even close attention is insufficient though as the ability to achieve coherence in these episodes rests heavily on shared familiarity with the `raw materials of the fantasy play ­ school experience family life or the themes drawn from child popular-culture fiction and fantasy we would like to argue that such familiarity is conducive not only for enhancing the welldocumented richness of pretend play e.g sawyer 1997 but also for the fostering of conversational skills e.g sanders and freeman 1998 as well as for the development of more sophisticated types of language forms such as genres of extended discourse pellegrini and galda 1990 1998 vedeler 1997 consider for example how children can help each other learn the skills of negotiation since from the children s point of view the stakes are high for example when exchanging valued goods such as ninja or pokemon stickers or the current equivalent levels of involvement will rise and lead to prolonged sequences of arguments and counter-arguments allowing children to display and learn new strategies from each other blum-kulka in press b the future of research on peer talk we started this introduction by noting that there is a necessary distinction between the field of peer interaction and the field of peer talk to some extent downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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300 discourse studies 63 though not entirely that distinction lines up with the fault line between researchers working from a developmental and those working from a sociolinguistic perspective we think it is crucial though to bridge this latter gulf to ensure that sociolinguistic discourse-analytic and developmental perspectives do not continue on their parallel mutually uninformative paths we argue that certain questions about social development can only be fully addressed with recourse to discourse analysis of peer interactions in the context of which social development is redefined as inevitably involving language development some such questions address basic developmental issues e.g how do children construct their own and others gender identities how do they form and maintain friendships and agonistic social relationships how do they develop empathy and perspective-taking others address issues having to do with the social structures in which we live and which children have to negotiate e.g how do children understand social categories such as race and ethnicity what are the sources of group differences in capacity to role-play or in the contents of narratives are there cultural differences in the content of peer interactions e.g roles assumed or in the salience of peer interactions as a context for opportunities to learn what is the impact of mixed vs single gender groups on the nature of pretend play and of narrative production similar questions could be formulated about individual differences and the sources of individual differences in participation in peer talk or about the specific consequences of various opportunities for peer talk for children s development of social and linguistic capacities attempting to answer any of these questions will require a systematic approach to studying peer talk and variation in peer talk and the development of shared and mutually agreed upon methods for its study ­ an advance which will present its own set of challenges developmental questions are best approached with longitudinal data but collecting longitudinal data on dyads or groups is much harder than on a single child or on parents and their children in part because authentic peer groups shift with time and circumstance questions about cultural and social differences are best approached with an explicitly comparative design but the opportunities for and meaning of peer interactions may vary so widely across cultures or social groups that close comparisons are hard to find questions about the consequences of peer talk would ideally be answered through studies that introduce some experimental control over experiences of peer talk but since children themselves to a large extent create their peer interactions and thus their opportunities to benefit from them assigning children to different experience levels is unlikely to work in other words making progress in answering the many questions about peer talk will require the ingenuity and the analytical tools of many researchers from many different analytic perspectives the articles in this issue display some of the fascinating possibilities of peer talk research and thus we hope will serve as an invitation to our ingenious colleagues with multiple analytic skills to join us in this field downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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blum-kulka and snow introduction the potential of peer talk 301 the articles in this issue the articles in this issue represent the shared commitments noted earlier to the analysis of natural language data using the full array of qualitative and quantitative tools to documenting the relation between the interpersonal bonds formed in peer groups and the institutional and cultural structures which shape them to a socio-cultural perspective on learning and development and to seeing communication as the motor of language development these articles all report on talk occurring in preschool or kindergarten classrooms but report on a variety of cultural settings including the united states israel norway and sweden most importantly they display a rich selection of the phenomena which peer talk can be used to study including genre differences individual and dyadic contributions to play-talk styles gender differences in the content and the organization of peer talk the sophistication with which second language speakers use limited linguistic resources during peer talk and the contribution of peer talk to second language learning this is of course only a subset of the phenomena that could be addressed using peer talk data but we hope this issue inspires better appreciation and focused research attention especially through systematic longitudinal studies to the process of pragmatic development through peer talk both in first and second languages across a range of communities from those where multiage peer talk is the natural major habitat for pragmatic socialization to those where peer talk is one of many available resources for such socialization references aronsson k and thorell m 2002 `adult­child talk and reaccentuation in children s play in s blum-kulka and c snow eds talking with adults the contribution of multiparty talk to language development pp 277­95 mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum aukrust v 2001 `talk-focused talk in preschools culturally formed socialization for talk first language 21 57­82 auwarter m 1986 `development of communicative skills the construction of fictional reality in children s play in j cook-gumper w.a corsaro and j streeck eds children s worlds and children s language pp 206­30 new york mouton barr d 1997 `friendship and belonging in r selman c watts and l schultz eds fostering friendship pair therapy for treatment and prevention pp 19­30 new york aldine de gruyter blum-kulka s in press a `modes of meaning making in young children s conversational narratives in j thornborrow and j coates eds the sociolinguistic of narrative antwerp john benjamins blum-kulka s in press b `rethinking genre discourse genres as a social interactional phenomenon in k fitch and r sanders eds handbook of language and social interaction mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum blum-kulka s and huck-taglicht d 2002 `the contribution of peer-interaction to the development of literate discourse genres and keyings script 1 75­111 [in hebrew blum-kulka s and snow c eds 2002 talking to adults the contribution of multi-party talk to language development mahwah nj lawrence erlbaum boggs s.t 1990 `the role of routines in the evolution of children s peer talk in downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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302 discourse studies 63 b dorval ed conversational organization and its development pp 101­31 norwood nj ablex christian d 1996 `language development in two-way immersion trends and prospects in j.e alatis c.a straehle m ronkin and b gallenberger eds georgetown university round table on languages and linguistics 1996 linguistics language acquisition and language variation ­ current trends and future prospects pp 30­42 washington dc georgetown university press christian d montone c lindholm k and carranza i 1997 profiles in two-way immersion education mchenry il delta systems corsaro b and rizzo t 1990 `disputes in the peer culture of american and italian nursery-school children in a.d grimshaw ed conflict talk pp 21­67 cambridge cambridge university press corsaro w.a 1985 friendship and peer culture in the early years norwood nj ablex corsaro w.a 1997 the sociology of childhood thousand oaks ca pine forge press damon w 1984 `peer interaction the untapped potential journal of applied developmental psychology 5 331­43 davenport p and howe c 1999 `conceptual gain and successful problem-solving in primary school mathematics educational studies 25 55­78 dorval b and eckerman c.o 1984 `developmental trends in the quality of conversation achieved by small groups of acquainted peers monographs of the society for research in child development 49 serial no 206 duff p 1995 `an ethnography of communication in immersion classrooms in hungary tesol quarterly 29 505­37 eder d 1990 `serious and playful disputes variation in conflict talk among female adolescents in a.d grimshaw ed conflict talk pp 67­84 new york cambridge university press eder d 1995 school talk gender and adolescent culture new brunswick nj rutgers university press ervin-tripp s 1982 `ask and it shall be given you children s requests in h byrnes ed georgetown university round table on languages and linguistics pp 235­45 washington dc georgetown university press ervin-tripp s and gordon d.p 1986 `the development of children s requests in r.e schiefelbusch ed communicative competence assessment and intervention pp 61­96 san diego ca college hill press ervin-tripp s and mitchell-kernan c eds 1977 child discourse new york academic press faris c.s.p 2000 `cross-sex peer conflict and the discursive production of gender in a chinese preschool in taiwan journal of pragmatics 32 539­69 fassler r 1998 `room for talk peer support for getting into english in an esl kindergarten early childhood research quarterly 13 379­409 fine g.a 1988 `friends impression management and preadolescent behavior in g handel ed childhood socialization pp 209­35 new york aldine de gruyter garvey c 1974 `some properties of social play merrill-palmer quarterly 20 163­80 garvey c 1975 `requests and responses in children s speech journal of child language 2 41­63 gibson e.j 1982 `the concept of affordances in development the renascence of functionalism in w.a collins ed minnesota symposium on child psychology hillsdale nj lawrence erlbaum göncü a 1993 `development of intersubjectivity in the dyadic play of preschoolers early childhood research quarterly 9 99­116 downloaded from dis.sagepub.com at univ of auckland library on march 15 2011

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